1 Samuel
Book Type
Book of History; the ninth book of the Old Testament; the ninth book of the Bible.Introduction to the Book of First Samuel
First Samuel shows Israel’s transition from a group of tribes to a centralized monarchy. The book begins with the birth of the last judge, Samuel, who also is a prophet (1 Sam 3:20; 7:15–17; compare Judg 2:16–23). During Samuel’s leadership, the Israelites clamor for a king. Samuel cautions against this. Yahweh—noting that it means Israel’s decision to reject Him as their rightful king—grants the request (1 Sam 8). Samuel then anoints Saul as king (1 Sam 9–10). After Saul goes against Yahweh’s ways, Yahweh rejects Saul and chooses David, who is then a youth (1 Sam 15–16). The remainder of the book depicts the difficulties between Saul and David. First Samuel illustrates the tension between God’s ideal will and people’s choices.When neighboring nations are hostile, the right leadership can give people a sense of safety. In Samuel’s time, Israel faced external threats and internal discord, and the judges did not satisfy the people’s desire for leadership and security. Israel wanted a king. The book of 1 Samuel records Israel’s transition from a federation of tribes to a centralized kingdom. Israel’s first king, Saul, was not faithful to God. However, God’s plan to save Israel—and the world—began to unfold in the person of King David.The books of 1 and 2 Samuel highlight a significant transition time in Israel’s history. As 1 Samuel begins, Israel is a loosely organized tribal league living under poor spiritual leadership. God’s plan for his people nonetheless continued as he raised up Samuel to guide Israel’s transition from a theocracy to a monarchy. Saul’s kingship constitutes the remainder of 1 Samuel, while David’s kingship is largely the focus of 2 Samuel.Theme & Overview
The nation of Israel transitions from being led by God through "judges" to being led by him through kings.The NIV Quest Study Bible says, in the books of first and second Samuel we find heroic stories and colorful characters. As we experience their tragedies and triumphs, their emotional highs and lows, we learn more about ourselves—and how God wants to work in our lives. In 1 Samuel we’re introduced to, and follow the lives of, Eli the priest, Samuel the prophet, King Saul, his son Jonathan, young David, and Goliath the giant. Each of the book’s main characters has flaws and strengths. Some are blessed by God while others receive his judgment. The book ends with the death of King Saul.The various relationships portrayed in 1 Samuel exemplify the startling differences between Yahweh’s followers and those who ignore Him. Following Yahweh means recognizing His place as ultimate king. The narrative of 1–2 Samuel shows that the power of Israel’s king comes only from Yahweh. Even after Saul takes the throne, he can only rule successfully as long as he respects Yahweh’s authority. But Saul lets fear take control and loses his way (1 Sam 15:24), even though Yahweh appointed him (15:35). The only thing constant is Yahweh—and the failure of the kingship leads even Yahweh to feel remorse (15:10–11; compare ch. 8).Unlike Saul, young David seems to fear only Yahweh, and Yahweh is with him (18:12). The choice of David from among his older, stronger brothers shows Yahweh’s love of those who love Him. Yahweh looks at the heart and is not swayed by outward appearances (1 Sam 16:7). During all of David’s struggles against Saul, including his time as an outlaw, he respects both Yahweh and Saul, Yahweh’s king (e.g., 1 Sam 24).First Samuel also brings to the forefront the concept of a messiah—an anointed leader chosen by God to lead His people. Saul fails in this role, while David, for a time, epitomizes the role. David defeats the Amalekites, and Philistine hostilities decline under his leadership. David’s reliance on Yahweh brings favor to Israel. And through David’s line the true and ultimate messiah, Jesus, brings salvation to the world.The central theme of the books of Samuel is God’s exercising of his cosmic kingship by inaugurating a Davidic dynasty (“house”) in Israel (2 Samuel 7; Psalm 89), not a Saulide one (1 Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28), and by electing the holy city Zion (Jerusalem; 2 Samuel 6; Psalm 132) as the place where David’s successor will establish the temple (“house”) for the worship of the divine King Yahweh (see 2 Sam. 24:18). The Davidic “covenant” (2 Samuel 7; Ps. 89:3) entitled Matthew to put David at the center of the genealogical history of the divine plan of salvation (Matt. 1:1).Author
The book itself does not name its author. Tradition records Samuel as the primary author, but not the only one. It was likely completed by both Samuel and other godly leaders of Israel who served through the end of book's events.Recipients
First and Second Samuel were originally completed as a single text, written to the Jewish people. The work serves both as a record of history and to emphasize the importance of faithfully following God. First Samuel records the transition of Israel's leadership from judges to kings, beginning with the transition of leadership from the prophet Samuel to King Saul and then King David. First Samuel illustrates the blessing of those who remain obedient to the Lord (like Samuel) and the judgment that comes upon those who live in disobedience to the Lord (like Saul).Date
Unknown. It was clearly written after the division of Israel and Judah in 931 BC, since these lands are often noted as separate kingdoms. Because its contents do not reflect the later events of the exile to Babylon, it was likely completed prior to this time, sometime between 931 and 722 BC.Background
First Samuel is set in the 11th century BC, a period marked by regional conflicts such as those between the Philistines and the Israelites (e.g., 1 Sam 17). Egypt no longer had much influence in Canaan—which Israel inhabited—so local city-states and tribal confederations vied for dominance. This atmosphere lies behind 1 Samuel.The Hebrew Bible presents 1–2 Samuel as a single book called Samuel. (The Septuagint, an ancient Greek translation, split the book into two.) The collective work of 1–2 Samuel—along with Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, and 1–2 Kings—presents the history of Israel in light of the covenant (contractual) blessings and curses set forth in Deuteronomy. These writings, including 1–2 Samuel, probably reached their final form in the sixth or fifth century BC through the work of Jewish scribes who compiled and edited earlier sources.Much of 1–2 Samuel centers around Deuteronomy’s framework: When Israel and its king follow Yahweh, they experience His blessings, but when Yahweh’s commands are opposed, hardship ensues. Saul is measured this way, and David is chosen because of his love for Yahweh (13:14; 15:10–11, 22–25; 16:7).As early as Moses’ final address on the plains of Moab (Deut 17:14–20), God had said that the people of Israel would ask for a king to reign over them. God spelled out the requirements for a king (Deut 17:15) but also warned of the evils commonly associated with human kings. A king would want many horses, numerous wives, and large amounts of gold and silver (Deut 17:16–17). To correct these tendencies, God required that each king of Israel immerse himself in God’s law (Deut 17:18–20).Throughout the days of the judges, discontent grew over the lack of unity among Israel’s tribes (see Judg 17–21). By Samuel’s time, Israel was looking for a king to unite the nation and protect it from internal and external threats.Gideon, who judged Israel about 100 years before the time of Samuel, had acted a lot like a monarch. Gideon rejected the invitation to inaugurate a hereditary dynasty (Judg 8:22–23), but he began to act like a king: He accumulated gold and used it to build a religious idol (Judg 8:24–27), he took many wives (Judg 8:30), and he even named one of his sons Abimelech, which means “my father is king” (Judg 8:31). Gideon acted like the kind of king God wanted Israel never to have. A monarchy would give an imperfect human even more control than the judges exercised. This book records the trouble that surrounded Israel’s first king, Saul, as well as God’s unfolding plan to establish an eternal kingship through the line of David.The Purpose & Audience (Reasons for the letter)
The emphasis on kingship in 1 Samuel first appears in Hannah’s Prayer of Praise (see 2:10). Hannah is the first person in Scripture to announce Israel’s coming kingship. However, the idea that Israel would have a king was as old as God’s promise to Abraham and Sarah (Gen 17:6, 16). God neither mandated nor forbade a monarchy but only spelled out the excesses from which Israel’s kings must abstain (see Deut 17:14–20).During the period of the judges, Israel changed dramatically for the worse—both spiritually and nationally. This steady disintegration reaches a horrible climax in Judg 17–21. To help correct this decline, the book of Judges hints, Israel needed a king. Israel’s greatest threat was not the Philistines or any other predatory neighbor but Israel itself and its breaking of the covenant. Israel needed a king to guard the covenant, which the pre-monarchical order had put at risk.If the king’s responsibility was to administer the covenant (Deut 17:18–20), the prophet’s duty was to interpret its stipulations. For this reason, a prophet such as Samuel protected his divinely authorized claim over kings with a holy zeal. Not only did Samuel anoint Israel’s first two kings (10:1; 16:13), but he was compelled to censure the king when he stepped outside of covenantal boundaries (13:8–15; 15:10–33).Saul did not have the character or integrity needed to lead Israel into a successful, God-honoring monarchy. Saul was not fated to fall, as though he had no control over his decisions. In fact, God wanted him to be a good king and made every provision for that to happen (such as changing his heart and giving him his Spirit). But God does not force righteousness, holiness, or obedience. His grace is persuasive but not coercive.Despite the deep disappointments of the era of the judges and the early monarchy, God’s sovereign control over Israel’s history is demonstrated in several ways: (1) A once-barren woman gave birth to Samuel, God’s agent for the transition to monarchy (ch 1); (2) a devastating Philistine victory became a Philistine defeat without human help (chs 4–6); (3) the king whom the people demanded became God’s anointed (chs 8–10); (4) this king was rejected for his unfaithfulness (chs 13, 15); and (5) the eighth son of an obscure family, a man after God’s own heart, was chosen as the future king of Israel (ch 16).Unlike Saul’s rule, David’s kingship over Israel lasted, and one of his descendants later became the sovereign and eternal King of the whole world. Jesus is the final heir to David’s throne (John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 11:15). He perpetuates his ancestor’s virtues but never exhibits his flaws. Jesus is the world’s perfect and eternal Shepherd and King.LEADERSHIP: The books of 1 and 2 Samuel provide numerous examples of good and bad leadership. When leaders focused their attention on the Lord and saw their leadership roles as instruments for his glory, they flourished; when they abandoned the Lord and used their offices for their own gain, they failed. The lives of Eli and his sons, plus the lives of Samuel, Saul, David, and others consistently illustrate these principles.GOD’S SOVEREIGNTY: The books of 1 and 2 Samuel highlight God’s provision at Israel’s every turn. He provided good spiritual leadership through Samuel, and he provided Israel its first king, though kingship was not his perfect will for his people at that time. He provided his people the leaders and resources they needed to defeat their enemies and to live out his purpose in the land, though both people and leaders often failed him.SIN’S CONSEQUENCES: The books of 1 and 2 Samuel take sin seriously, describing in detail the awful consequences of sin—even forgiven sin. Saul’s disobedience of God led to his estrangement from his son Jonathan and from David, and ultimately led to his death in battle. David’s sin with Bathsheba, though forgiven, brought consequences that haunted David the rest of his life.COVENANT: The books of 1 and 2 Samuel describe God’s relationship with his covenant people and his faithful response to the terms of that covenant. The Lord also established a special covenant with David, a covenant that ultimately found its fulfillment in the Lord Jesus Christ.CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIBLEThe books of 1 and 2 Samuel describe Israel’s transition from a loosely organized tribal league under God (a theocracy) to centralized leadership under a king who answered to God (a monarchy). Samuel’s life and ministry greatly shaped this period of restructuring as he consistently pointed people back to God.Saul’s rule highlighted the dangers to which the Israelites fell victim as they clamored for a king to lead them. Samuel’s warnings fell on deaf ears (1Sm 8:10–20) because God’s people were intent on becoming like the nations around them. In the end, they got exactly what they asked for, but they paid a terrible price. Saul’s life stands as a warning to trust God’s timing for life’s provisions.David’s rule testified to the amazing works the Lord could and would do through a life yielded to him. Israel’s second king seemed quite aware of God’s blessing on his life and displayed a tender heart toward the things of God (2Sm 5:12; 7:1–2; 22:1–51; 23:1–7). Later generations would receive blessing because of David’s life (Is 37:35). God’s special covenant with David (2Sm 7:1–29) found its ultimate fulfillment in Jesus, the son of David (Lk 1:32–33). The consequences of David’s sin with Bathsheba, however, stand as a warning to all who experience sin’s attraction. God holds his children accountable for their actions, and even forgiven sin can have terrible consequences.Key Verses (ESV)
1 Samuel 8:6–7: "But the thing displeased Samuel when they said, 'Give us a king to judge us.' And Samuel prayed to the Lord. And the Lord said to Samuel, 'Obey the voice of the people in all that they say to you, for they have not rejected you, but they have rejected me from being king over them.'" 1 Samuel 13:13–14: "And Samuel said to Saul, 'You have done foolishly. You have not kept the command of the Lord your God, with which he commanded you. For then the Lord would have established your kingdom over Israel forever. But now your kingdom shall not continue. The Lord has sought out a man after his own heart, and the Lord has commanded him to be prince over his people, because you have not kept what the Lord commanded you.'"1 Samuel 15:22–23: "And Samuel said, 'Has the Lord as great delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices, as in obeying the voice of the Lord? Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to listen than the fat of rams. For rebellion is as the sin of divination, and presumption is as iniquity and idolatry. Because you have rejected the word of the Lord, he has also rejected you from being king.'"Structure & Outline 1
The narrative of 1–2 Samuel includes three cycles of leadership stories. First Samuel presents the cycles about Samuel and Saul and introduces David, while 2 Samuel contains the cycle about David’s reign.The Samuel cycle (1 Sam 1–7) starts with the miraculous birth of Samuel and continues through his time as prophet and last ruling judge of Israel. Samuel’s time as prophet continues into Saul’s reign as king. This introduces a new structure for Israel’s leadership: a king with a consulting prophet, with both reporting to Yahweh. The king is a regent under Yahweh and is supposed to obey Yahweh’s prophet.The Saul cycle (1 Sam 8–31) can be divided into two parts. The first part (1 Sam 8–15) covers Israel’s request for a king, the selection of Saul, and the beginning of Saul’s reign. Toward the end of this section, Saul disobeys Yahweh; as a consequence, his descendants will not inherit the kingship. In the second part of the cycle (1 Sam 16–31), Samuel anoints young David as king, and conflict develops between David and Saul. The text portrays Saul negatively and David positively. First Samuel ends with Saul’s death, which sets the stage for the David cycle in 2 Samuel.Outline • God calls Samuel as judge (1:1–7:17) • God calls Saul as king (8:1–12:25) • God rejects Saul as king (13:1–15:35) • God calls David as king (16:1–31:13)Outline 2
First Samuel consists of 31 chapters and includes three main sections. The first section develops the life of Samuel as both prophet and judge in Israel (1 Samuel 1—7). He had a special birth (1 Samuel 1), initiated by a fervent prayer from his mother Hannah (1 Samuel 2:1–10). Samuel heard from the Lord at a young age, worshiping God under the leadership of Eli. Chapters 4—7 chronicle Samuel's tenure as a judge over the land, including an important victory over the Philistines in chapter 7. The second section provides an account of Saul's rise as king over Israel (1 Samuel 8—15). After the people demand a king (1 Samuel 8), Samuel seeks the Lord who gives him directions for selecting Saul. Samuel then provides instruction to the people of Israel regarding submission to their king (1 Samuel 11:14—12:25). Though Saul begins well, his faithfulness does not last. Samuel rebukes him for sin (1 Samuel 13:8–15), the nation is dragged into multiple wars, and eventually Saul is rejected as king (1 Samuel 15).The third section begins the transition from King Saul to the future King David (1 Samuel 16—31). David comes from a humble background, yet has a passion for the Lord. Samuel anoints him, and David soon plays the harp before Saul. In chapter 17, David miraculously defeats the giant Goliath, making him a national hero.Saul is angry at David (1 Samuel 18), yet ends up giving his daughter Michal to David in marriage. Meanwhile, Saul's son Jonathan becomes David's best friend (1 Samuel 18:1–5; 19—20). Tensions then rise between Saul and David, leading to outright violence from Saul. David flees from Saul's pursuit, sparing Saul's life twice in the process (1 Samuel 21—26). During this time, Samuel dies (1 Samuel 25:1). David later comes to a low point and is forced to live among the Philistines (1 Samuel 27).In the final chapters of the book, Saul finally sinks to his lowest spiritual point (1 Samuel 28). David and his army are sent home by the Philistines and must defeat the Amalekites to rescue their families (1 Samuel 29—30). Finally, Saul and his sons die in battle (1 Samuel 31).The story is continued in 2 Samuel, and these were originally written as a single, continuous work.