Lamentations
Book Type
The third book of the Major Prophets; the twenty-fifth book of the Old Testament; the twenty-fifth book of the Bible.Introduction to the Book of Lamentations
Lamentations is set just after Jerusalem’s destruction by the Babylonians in 586 BC. The book is composed of five poems that mourn the catastrophe. In Lamentations, the poet grieves, yet still has faith—crying out to God for mercy.Most of us have been observers, not participants, in wars. Most of us have not experienced the death of our nation, and we know little of the agony of utter despair; but others in our world have experienced total devastation as their cities or nations have been destroyed by wars, earthquakes, tsunamis, or hurricanes. Reading the book of Lamentations can give us a point of entry into their experience. It can help us to face the darkest aspects of human existence.This is a book about pain but with hope in God. The author vividly addresses the extremes of human pain and suffering as few other authors have done in history. For this reason, Lamentations is an important biblical source expressing the hard questions that arise during our times of pain. The suffering the author discusses was brought on by the brutal overthrow of Jerusalem in 586 BC, one of the darkest times in Jewish history. When naming a book of the Hebrew Bible, the first word was often adopted as the name of the whole book. In this case, 1:1; 2:1; and 4:1 begin the typical Hebrew cry of woe (Hb ‘ekah, “Ah,” “Alas,” “How”), an exclamatory rather than interrogative Hebrew particle. Thus, the book would have been known as Alas! Later rabbis referred to the book more by its contents—qinot, i.e., “lamentations”—so this title came to be passed down in the Talmud and in the Greek translation (the Septuagint).Theme & Overview
The prophet and his fellow Jews lament the devastation of their beloved city at the hands of the Babylonians. In the middle of the book, the theology of Lamentations reaches its apex as it focuses on the goodness of God. He is the Lord of hope (3:21, 24-25), of love (3:22), of faithfulness (3:23), of salvation and restoration (3:26). In spite of all evidence to the contrary, "his compassions never fail. / They are new every morning; / great is your faithfulness" (3:22-23).The book of Lamentations, probably written by the prophet Jeremiah, is a dark but beautiful book that reflects the pain of injustice and human loss. It’s filled with crushing emotions: anger, desperation, fear, loneliness, hopelessness. If you are personally wounded when reading Lamentations, you may feel strangely understood and comforted. The NIV Quest Study Bible advises that you look for themes of tragic reversal—despair to hope, repentance to renewal—for individuals, cities and nations. Notice also the book’s careful construction. Jeremiah used the Hebrew alphabet to portray the full extent of his pain and sorrow—as though including “everything from A to Z.” The 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet shape each of the first four chapters, but not the last one. Though we can’t say why, perhaps it was Jeremiah’s way to symbolically express frustration over Jerusalem’s slide from order to chaos. The book of Lamentations confirms that the world, sadly, is full of suffering due to sin’s presence. The full effect of sin, and thus suffering, is held back only by God’s intercession. When God removes His hand of protection from Jerusalem, after years of waiting for the people to turn to Him, the city falls. And in its destruction is a glimpse of what it is like to live without God’s protection.Lamentations does not explain away tragedy; it confronts it. Lamentations portrays the raw experience of humanity by expressing loss with full force and then mourning it. The pain is so vivid and fresh that the book ends in devastation. For those who had experienced the invasion of Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple, a hopeful future was nowhere on the horizon.Lamentations shows the need for all people to turn to Yahweh; He is our hope. This is the only sort of resolution that Lamentations offers. The book’s final verse can be translated as a question: “Have you abandoned us, and are you angry with us beyond measure?” There is no answer, but the poet still expects to hear from God someday. In times of suffering and despair, we wait upon Yahweh—even when the way forward is unclear.The key passage in Lamentations is 3:19–24, where the speaker affirms that belief in God’s mercy and faithfulness is the key to a restored relationship with God. This fact is true even for people who have merited and received God’s judgment (1:18). Hope, not despair, is the final word in Lamentations.This theme becomes clear as the book unfolds. Lamentations presents five intricately interconnected poems. Together they describe a movement from horrible loss and personal shame, to restored hope and prayer for renewal. This movement has both individual and community components, and is conveyed by the literary type, acrostic forms, meter, and basic movement of Lamentations. Literary Features
As its title indicates, the book of Lamentations is a collection of laments, or melancholy dirges, for a ruined society. The poems in the book could also be termed elegies or funeral orations, in which the author expresses deep personal and communal grief for the dead and for all of the suffering that surrounds their loss. In terms of structure, the first four poems are acrostics. This structure, using the entire Hebrew alphabet, matches the poet’s intent, which is to give full expression to the suffering of his people and the sorrows of his own soul—in effect, to offer a lament “from A to Z” (or aleph to taw). Perhaps the highly structured form of the acrostic is also an attempt to impose some sense of order on a tragic situation that is chaotic beyond what anyone can bear.Lamentations is not an emotional outburst but a formal expression of grief in a high literary style. However, each lament moves rapidly from one topic to the next, revealing that the writer’s soul is still in turmoil. Like most elegies, the lyrics in Lamentations deal with profound loss by recollecting past glories and cataloging what is now gone forever, lamenting the finality of the losses while at the same time seeking consolation in present sorrows and some hope for the future.Literary type. Each chapter of Lamentations is a lament, many examples of which exist in the Psalms (e.g., Psalms 3, 13, 44, 77). Laments in the Psalms vary in format, but they regularly include a description of the problem, protests of innocence, a plea for help, a statement of faith, and a pledge of service when the situation changes. Except for “pleas of innocence,” all these characteristics occur in Lamentations. The “confession of faith” and “pledge of service” are also less evident, perhaps because the book focuses on sinful persons returning to the Lord rather than faithful persons pouring out their hearts to God because of unjust suffering.Acrostic forms. An acrostic poem uses the Hebrew alphabet as a key organizing principle. Several examples exist in the Bible; Psalm 119 is probably the best known. There is great variety in the acrostic form. Indeed, Lamentations utilizes four different types.Some acrostic poems begin each succeeding line with the next letter of the alphabet. For example, chapter 1 consists of 22 one-verse sentences. Therefore 1:1 starts with a word that begins with aleph, 1:2 uses a word that begins with beth, and so forth through the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet.Other acrostic poems open a segment with aleph and then begin each succeeding segment with the succeeding letter of the alphabet. Only the first word in a stanza exhibits the acrostic pattern. For example, chapters 1 and 2 feature 22 three-line verses, for a total of 66 lines. The first word in 1:1, 2:1, and 4:1 begins with an aleph; the first word in 1:2, 2:2, and 4:2 begins with beth; and so forth.There are variations on that second type. For example, chapter 4 follows the same procedure as chapters 1 and 2, except that each segment is two lines long, for a total of 44 lines.Still other acrostic poems have stanzas of three lines each that begin with the same letter of the alphabet. Thus, chapter 3 has 66 lines, like chapters 1 and 2. But each line in 3:1–3 begins with aleph; 3:4–6 has each line begin with beth; and so forth. The composition of acrostics requires great skill.Meter. Lamentations often utilizes qinah meter, a type used in some passages that mourn the dead (e.g., Isaiah 14; Ezekiel 27). This rhythm is based on lines of two unequal parts. The first part normally consists of three words and the second part usually includes two words. This pattern creates three accents, then two, thereby creating a falling, rising, and falling cadence. In this way the poems seem to “limp,” as if the reader is walking haltingly along behind a funeral procession.Basic movement. The acrostic forms noted above convey the book’s movement from Jerusalem’s protest concerning what she has suffered (1:1–22) to her penitent turning to God again (5:1–22). Chapters 1–2 relate Jerusalem’s horrible defeat at the hands of Babylon. People, property, opportunity, and hope have been lost. A narrator and a prophetic voice encourage Jerusalem to turn to God. Jerusalem prays, but almost solely in protest. These chapters are the least acrostic of all the poems, and they portray the least movement toward God.Chapter 3 presents an individual who counsels Jerusalem to turn to God, just as he has done. His counsel includes statements of what he endured, and of the justice of what he endured, and of the way he came to trust in God’s faithfulness (3:19–24). This “most acrostic” of the chapters exhibits the most faith in God.Chapter 4 is much like chapters 1–2 in its speakers and tone. Jerusalem continues to question the justice of what she has endured, but she admits her sin and takes comfort in the fact that her pain will soon end. Thus, the two-line acrostic form conveys protest, but less protest than chapters 1–2.Chapter 5 is a community lament that presents Jerusalem crying out to God and casting all her future on him. Chapter 5 is to the community what chapter 3 was for the individual, in that the whole community has come to accept what the individual in chapter 3 advised.Author
Jeremiah is the traditional author, though the book does not specifically note who wrote it. As with Jeremiah, it may have been written in part with the help of his servant Baruch.Recipients
The original readers and hearers of Lamentations included the survivors of the destruction of Jerusalem. Shocked and saddened at the loss of their capital city, friends, and family members, Lamentations identified with the people's grief while looking forward to a future hope.Date
Approximately 586 BC, shortly after the fall of Jerusalem.Background
Although the Hebrew text of Lamentations is anonymous, tradition attributes the book to the prophet Jeremiah. Second Chronicles records that Jeremiah composed a lament for King Josiah, which indicates that he was familiar with this literary form (2 Chr 35:25).The author of Lamentations appears to have been a witness to the Babylonians’ siege of Jerusalem (see 2 Kgs 25; Jer 52). The eyewitness account emphasizes the book’s message with vivid images of the temple’s destruction and the suffering of God’s people. The author makes clear that although the Babylonians are the cause of the suffering depicted in the book, Yahweh has allowed this to happen because His people have abandoned His ways. Although Yahweh had long held back the negative consequences of forsaking His covenant (His contract), the people refused to change their ways and chose to live outside of relationship with Him (compare Exod 24:1–8).A catastrophe had wiped out the kingdom of Judah, its capital (Jerusalem), its Temple, and most of its people. After a long siege, the Babylonian army breached Jerusalem’s defenses and took control. They deported many of the people of Judah to exile in Babylon, and they destroyed the city of Jerusalem, including the Temple of God. Only a few survivors were left in the land, including Jeremiah the prophet. Nothing else was left, and the hopes of God’s people were nearly dead.The Purpose & Audience (Reasons for the letter)
The original readers and hearers of Lamentations included the survivors of the destruction of Jerusalem. Shocked and saddened at the loss of their capital city, friends, and family members, Lamentations identified with the people's grief while looking forward to a future hope.What positive meaning can be gained from staring at blackened stones hour after hour, or from walking among starving children and wailing mothers, or from remembering false prophets who promised rescue from the Babylonian army encamped around Jerusalem? What significance is there in watching priests, who had been confident that the sacrifices they offered would provide victory and success, wander the city searching for food? How can one believe in God’s goodness when corpses lie everywhere?But the author did find meaning in the calamity. The false worship and immoral behavior of the leaders and the people had brought disaster upon them. God was angry because his people rejected his sovereignty and ignored his reality as the one, true God. They had violated their covenant with the Lord, and the Lord had judged them, as he had promised to do (cp. Lam 1:3, 5 with Deut 28:32–33; Lam 1:9 with Deut 28:43; Lam 1:16 with Deut 28:41; Lam 2:20; 4:10 with Deut 28:53; Lam 3:14, 45 with Deut 28:37; and Lam 4:16 with Deut 28:48–50). God’s punishment was righteous and just (1:18); he does not tolerate human rebellion.But what about the future? Those in anguish can plead before God (1:20–22). They can understand that in catastrophe, God fulfills justice (2:17; see Lev 26:14–17). In the midst of utter sorrow, they can experience the Lord’s mercy. Those who truly seek God have hope. God is great in his faithfulness (3:21–26). Misery threatens to overwhelm the soul, but moments of hope bring light (3:29–33). God is eternal, and his throne forever dominates the universe. Though doubts and fears continue to assault the human spirit, God remains dependable. God’s anger, which has a just foundation, is temporary. God’s anger ceases when confession and repentance begin, and it becomes possible to sing of God’s great faithfulness. The ultimate goal is that each person, and each community, will experience God’s forgiveness and restoration.Lamentations does not offer a complete or understandable explanation for the suffering and pain found here, but it was important that the pain and suffering be connected to the actual events of 586 BC. If these pent-up feelings of agony could not be attached to some datable event, the pain could threaten to take on cosmic proportions. This is why history is necessary. When sorrow becomes detached from history, suffering gets out of hand because perspective is lost, tempting a suffering person to lose touch with reality.There was more than enough to weep over. The united lament of the people related to their covenant history with God. This anchored their sorrow but also gave their grief specific barriers, lest they should be overwhelmed and lose all hope.CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIBLEFew things contrast religious and humanistic traditions more than their respective responses to suffering. The humanist sees suffering as a bare, impersonal event without ultimate meaning or purpose. For believers, suffering is a personal problem because they believe that all events of history are under the hand of a personal God. And if that is true, then how can God’s love and justice be reconciled with our pain?Lamentations gives no easy answers to this question, but it helps us meet God in the midst of our suffering and teaches us the language of prayer. Instead of offering a set of techniques, easy answers, or inspiring slogans for facing pain and grief, Lamentations supplies: (1) an orientation, (2) a voice for working through grief from “A” to “Z,” (3) instruction on how and what to pray, and (4) a focal point on the faithfulness of God and the affirmation that he alone is our portion.Key Verses (ESV)
Lamentations 2:17: "The Lord has done what he purposed; \ he has carried out his word, \ which he commanded long ago; \ he has thrown down without pity; \ he has made the enemy rejoice over you \ and exalted the might of your foes." Lamentations 3:22–23: "The steadfast love of the Lord never ceases; \ his mercies never come to an end; \ they are new every morning; \ great is your faithfulness."Lamentations 5:19–22: "But you, O LORD, reign forever; \ your throne endures to all generations. \ Why do you forget us forever, \ why do you forsake us for so many days? \ Restore us to yourself, O LORD, that we may be restored! \ Renew our days as of old— \ unless you have utterly rejected us, \ and you remain exceedingly angry with us."Key Passages (NLT)
La 1:1–2:14 Jerusalem, once so full of people, is now deserted. She who was once great among the nations now sits alone like a widow. Once the queen of all the earth, she is now a slave. She sobs through the night; tears stream down her cheeks. Among all her lovers, there is no…La 2:19–22Rise during the night and cry out. Pour out your hearts like water to the Lord. Lift up your hands to him in prayer, pleading for your children, for in every street they are faint with hunger. “O Lord, think about this! Should you treat your own people this way? Should mothers eat their…La 4:17–22We looked in vain for our allies to come and save us, but we were looking to nations that could not help us. We couldn’t go into the streets without danger to our lives. Our end was near; our days were numbered. We were doomed! Our enemies were swifter than eagles in flight.…SUMMARY
The book of Lamentations is a collection of five highly structured and emotionally powerful poems that lament Jerusalem’s destruction. The first four poems are acrostics based on the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet, with each successive stanza beginning with the next letter (a feature that is lost in translation). Chapter 5 has twenty-two verses but is not an acrostic.There is no attempt to hide the horror of the destruction that the people experienced. The reader is invited to ground zero of the devastation, there to stand dumbfounded by the enormity of the collapse of this once glorious city.
DIANNE BERGANT
Lamentations
Chapter 1 describes Jerusalem’s ruins. Jerusalem is personified as a woman who was once a famous princess but is now a wounded slave, lamenting the contrast between her past and present with intense agony and shame. The woman acknowledges that she has earned her distress, and she prays that the Lord will relieve her miserable condition.Chapter 2 summarizes the shameful situation of the false prophets, city leaders, and young women. The author agonizes as he watches starving children and weeping mothers, lying prophets and mocking enemies. It happened because God withdrew his mercy and kept his promise to judge his people when they sinned against him.Chapter 3 is an eyewitness account of God’s wrath. The author is sickened by the carnage; he is abused, without hope, and crushed by shame. Then hope suddenly floods his soul in the realization that God’s anger will not last forever. God’s faithfulness, love, kindness, and goodness are the ultimate, saving reality. The battered believer sings. Yet the hurt remains, and his tears flow abundantly as he pours out his repentant prayer.Chapter 4 is a gloomy description of the devastation before and after the walls of Jerusalem were breached, in contrast to the city’s years of glory. God was justly punishing the vicious sins of his people, and they could not escape his judgment.The prayer in chapter 5 asks God to carefully consider the people’s plight; it ends with a plea for salvation, if salvation is still available.In all five poems, pain and distress are paired with faith and hope. The suffering of the present seems more real than the possibility of redemption in the future, but God’s love and faithfulness remain.Structure & Outline 1
The first four of Lamentations’ five poems exhibit an acrostic structure, with each line beginning with a different letter of the Hebrew alphabet, in alphabetical order. The opening poem (Lam 1:1–22) includes multiple voices expressing the hardships faced in Jerusalem, personified as “Daughter Zion.” In the second poem (Lam 2:1–22), the poet cries out to God and declares the destruction of the city to be the result of God’s judgement (see Lam 2:1). In the third poem (Lam 3:1–66), the tone changes to one of acceptance and repentance. We see here that God’s promises and compassion will eventually bring restoration to His people, and the invaders will be cursed (Lam 3:21–33, 64–66). However, despite this hope, the next chapter returns to sorrow, which continues to the end of the book.The fourth poem (Lam 4:1–22) acknowledges the trauma experienced by the people as they were stripped of their humanity during the invasion. The poet identifies the cause of this suffering as the sinfulness and guilt of Jerusalem’s prophets and priests, again noting that God was justified in His judgment against His people (Lam 4:11, 13, 16). The fifth and final poem (Lam 5:1–22) offers a summary of the people’s sin and suffering and includes a plea that God restore them, bringing renewal (see Lam 5:21).Outline • The desolation of Jerusalem (Lam 1:1–22) • God’s judgment on Jerusalem (Lam 2:1–22) • Hope in God’s faithfulness in the midst of disaster (Lam 3:1–66) • Jerusalem before and after the siege (Lam 4:1–22) • A prayer for restoration (Lam 5:1–22)Outline 2
Lamentations consists of five chapters, with each chapter providing a specific lament. In the first four chapters, each verse begins with sequential letters of the Hebrew alphabet as an aid for memorization. Chapter 1 includes two major parts, the sorrow experienced by the writer (Lamentations 1:1–11) and the sorrow of the city (Lamentations 1:12–22). Chapter 2 focuses attention on the reasons for the Lord's anger. Lamentations 2:1–9 emphasizes the Lord's destruction without mercy on the city of Jerusalem. Lamentations 2:10–19 shifts to the human perspective of the destruction. The chapter closes with a prayer by the author for the city (Lamentations 2:20–22).Chapter 3 continues to express grief over the plight of the city's destruction. Consisting of sixty-six verses, each verse begins with consecutive letters of the twenty-two-letter Hebrew alphabet, for a total of three consecutive cycles. The first section emphasizes discouragement, the second section offers hope, while the third section offers words of prayer for the city.Chapter 4 provides details of God's wrath for two areas. Most of the chapter repeats the theme of the Lord's judgment upon Jerusalem (Lamentations 4:1–20). However, Lamentations 4:21–22 shifts to God's wrath upon Edom.The final chapter breaks from the pattern of the first four, highlighting the prayers of those who remain. The first emphasis of prayer is that the Lord remembers those who have survived the devastation of Jerusalem (Lamentations 5:1–18). There is recognition that the Lord reigns forever and a prayer for Him tol restore the people to Himself (Lamentations 5:19–22).